Combustion Aerosols as a Source of Bioavailable Iron Re. (Unintended) Ocean Iron Fertilization Climate Geoengineering

By Oscar Escobar - April 30, 2015
Last update September 10, 2015

Recently in an informal conversation with someone dear to me, I was asked to summarize climate geoengineering in 140 characters or words. I took it as meaning one twitt:

SRM and OIF climate geoengineering "we" are already doing it with fossil fuel aerosols but we ignore that fact.

I should have said: 'we like' to ignore that fact.

Two studies that encompass both the Northern and Southern oceans partly explain some of the reasons of why I have arrived at that conclusion. (See full abstracts and links below my comments)

The study centered on the Northern oceans states: 

"Due to continuing growth in global shipping and no regulations regarding particles emissions over the open ocean, the input of potentially bioavailable iron from ship plumes is likely to increase during the next century. The model results suggest suggest that deposition of soluble iron from ships in 2100 contributes 30–60% of the soluble iron deposition over the high‐latitude North Atlantic and North Pacific".

This study prompted the New Scientist article "Sooty ships may be geoengineering by accident"
in which Jeff Hecht writes:

GEOENGINEERING is being tested - albeit inadvertently - in the north Pacific. Soot from oil-burning ships is dumping about 1000 tonnes of soluble iron per year across 6 million square kilometres of ocean, new research has revealed.
 Fertilising the world's oceans with iron has been controversially proposed as a way of sucking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere to curb global warming. Some geoengineers claim releasing iron into the sea will stimulate plankton blooms, which absorb carbon, but ocean processes are complex and difficult to monitor in tests.
 "Experiments suggest you change the population of algae, causing a shift from fish-dominated to jellyfish-dominated ecosystems," says Alex Baker of the University of East Anglia, UK. Such concerns led the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to impose a moratorium on geoengineering experiments in 2010.
 The annual ship deposition is much larger, if less concentrated, than the iron released in field tests carried out before the moratorium was in place. Yet because ship emissions are not intended to alter ocean chemistry, they do not violate the moratorium, says Jim Thomas of the ETC Group, a think tank that consults for the CBD. "If you intentionally drove oil-burning ships back and forth as a geoengineering experiment, that would contravene it." 

The results of the study centered on the Southern oceans:

"suggest that deposition of soluble iron from combustion sources contributes more than 40% of the total soluble iron deposition over significant portions of the open ocean in the Southern Hemisphere". 

My comments:

As I said before here on this blog and in my twitter feed: I think that 'we' are already geoengineering the oceans via iron fertilization (and the atmosphere i.e. SRM in other posts).

Regardless of the Intentionality issue, that implies that all the concerns related to the environment i.e. marine ecosystems, and all the questions of climate justice i.e. responsibilities/liabilities/reparations and all the concerns like those voiced by The Convention on Biological Diversity and groups like the ETC apply. 

Apply but are not governed; and they will not be governed as long as they remain willfully ignored or under the shroud of being 'non-intentional' effects.

The abstracts and links:

Global modeling study of potentially bioavailable iron input from shipboard aerosol sources to the ocean 

Akinori Ito1 Received 2 April 2012; revised 27 September 2012; accepted 4 November 2012; published 18 January 2013. [1] 

Iron (Fe) is an essential element for phytoplankton. The majority of iron is transported from arid and semiarid regions to the open ocean, but it is mainly in an insoluble form. Since most aquatic organisms can take up iron only in the dissolved form, aerosol iron solubility is a key factor that can influence the air‐sea CO2 fluxes and thus climate. 

Field observations have shown relatively high iron solubility in aerosols influenced by combustion sources, but specific emissions sources and their contributions to deposition fluxes largely remain uncertain. Here a global chemical transport model was used to investigate the effect of aerosol emissions from ship plumes on iron solubility in particles from the combustion and dust sources. 

The model results reveal that the oil combustion from shipping mainly contributes to high iron solubility (>10%) at low iron loading (1–110ngm–3 ) observed over the high‐latitude North Atlantic Ocean, rather than the other combustion sources from continental industrialized regions. Due to continuing growth in global shipping and no regulations regarding particles emissions over the open ocean, the input of potentially bioavailable iron from ship plumes is likely to increase during the next century. The model results suggest that deposition of soluble iron from ships in 2100 contributes 30–60% of the soluble iron deposition over the high‐latitude North Atlantic and North Pacific. 

Citation: Ito, A. (2013), Global modeling study of potentially bioavailable iron input from shipboard aerosol sources to the ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 27, 1–10, doi: 10.1029/2012GB004378.

PDF http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2012GB004378/pdf

Atmospheric Processing of Combustion Aerosols as a Source of Bioavailable Iron

Akinori Ito *

Yokohama Institute for Earth Sciences, JAMSTEC, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0001, Japan

Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2015, 2 (3), pp 70–75

DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00007

Publication Date (Web): February 2, 2015

Copyright © 2015 American Chemical Society

*E-mail: akinorii@jamstec.go.jp. Phone: (+81)457785717. Fax: (+81)457785707.

ACS AuthorChoice - This is an open access article published under an ACS AuthorChoice License, which permits copying and redistribution of the article or any adaptations for non-commercial purposes.

Abstract

Atmospheric processing of combustion aerosols may promote transformation of insoluble iron into soluble forms. Here, an explicit scheme for iron dissolution of combustion aerosols due to photochemical reactions with inorganic and organic acids in solution is implemented in an atmospheric chemistry transport model to estimate the atmospheric sources of bioavailable iron. The model results suggest that deposition of soluble iron from combustion sources contributes more than 40% of the total soluble iron deposition over significant portions of the open ocean in the Southern Hemisphere. A sensitivity simulation using half the iron dissolution rate for combustion aerosols results in relatively small decreases in soluble iron deposition in the ocean, compared with the large uncertainties associated with iron solubility at emission. More accurate quantification of the soluble iron burdens near the source regions and the open ocean is needed to improve the process-based understanding of the chemical modification of iron-containing minerals.

Link: Ihttp://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00007

Sooty ships may be geoengineering by accident

http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21729035.100-sooty-ships-may-be-geoengineering-by-accident.html#.VUJaACFViko

One more study:
Added May 3 (My emphasys)

Sources, transport and deposition of iron in the global atmosphere

R. Wang1,2,3, Y. Balkanski1,3, O. Boucher4, L. Bopp1, A. Chappell5, P. Ciais1,3, D. Hauglustaine1, J. Peñuelas6,7, and S. Tao2,3

Abstract. Atmospheric deposition of iron (Fe) plays an important role in controlling oceanic primary productivity. However, the sources of Fe in the atmosphere are not well understood. In particular, the combustion sources of Fe and their deposition over oceans are not accounted for in current biogeochemical models of the carbon cycle. Here we used a mass-balance method to estimate the emissions of Fe from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass by accounting for the Fe contents in fuel and the partitioning of Fe during combustion. The emissions of Fe attached to aerosols from combustion sources were estimated by particle size, and their uncertainties were quantified by a Monte Carlo simulation. The emissions of Fe from mineral sources were estimated using the latest soil mineralogical database to date. As a result, the total Fe emissions from combustion averaged for 1960–2007 were estimated to be 5.1 Tg yr−1 (90% confidence of 2.2 to 11.5). Of these emissions, 2, 33 and 65% were emitted in particles <1 μm (PM1), 1–10 μm (PM1−10), and >10 μm (PM>10), respectively, compared to total Fe emissions from mineral sources of 41.0 Tg yr−1. For combustion sources, different temporal trends were found in fine and medium-to-coarse particles, with a notable increase in Fe emissions in PM1 and PM1−10 since 2000 due to a rapid increase from motor vehicles. These emissions have been introduced in a global 3-D transport model run at a spatial resolution of of 0.94° latitude by 1.28° longitude to evaluate our estimation of Fe emissions. The modelled Fe concentrations were compared to measurements at 825 sampling stations. The deviation between modelled and observed Fe concentrations attached to aerosols at the surface was within a factor of two at most sampling stations, and the deviation was within a factor of 1.5 at sampling stations dominated by combustion sources. We analyzed the relative contribution of combustion sources to total Fe concentrations over different regions of the world. The new mineralogical database led to a modest improvement in the simulation relative to station data even in dust dominated regions, but could provide useful information on the chemical forms of Fe in dust for coupling with ocean biota models. We estimated a total Fe deposition sink of 8.4 Tg yr−1 over global oceans, 6.6% of which originated from the combustion sources. The higher than previously estimated combustion-related Fe emissions implies a larger atmospheric input of soluble Fe over the northern Atlantic and northern Pacific Oceans, which is expected to enhance the biological carbon pump in those regions.

Citation: Wang, R., Balkanski, Y., Boucher, O., Bopp, L., Chappell, A., Ciais, P., Hauglustaine, D., Peñuelas, J., and Tao, S.: Sources, transport and deposition of iron in the global atmosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 15, 7645-7705, doi:10.5194/acpd-15-7645-2015, 2015.

Abstract: http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/15/7645/2015/acpd-15-7645-2015.html

PDF full study: 

http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/15/7645/2015/acpd-15-7645-2015.pdf

Edited May 3, 2015
notwhistanding

Updates:

 September 10, 2015 (2)
(This may be related to the anthropogenic bioavailable iron from combustion)
 Southern Ocean carbon sink bounces back with renewed vigour, study says
Sep 2015, 19:00 by Robert McSweeney - The Carbon Brief http://www.carbonbrief.org/blog/2015/09/southern-ocean-carbon-sink-bounces-back-with-renewed-vigour/


Delivery of anthropogenic bioavailable iron from mineral dust and combustion aerosols to the ocean

A. Ito1 and Z. Shi2 2015 (doi:10.5194/acpd-15-23051-2015)

http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/15/23051/2015/acpd-15-23051-2015.pdf
 

July 22, 2015
Natural aerosols explain seasonal and spatial patterns of Southern Ocean cloud albedo
Science Advances 17 Jul 2015: Vol. 1, no. 6, e1500157 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500157
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/1/6/e1500157

June 16, 2015

Framing an ethics of climate management for the anthropocene

Christopher J. Preston -Date: 26 Jun 2014 - DOI 10.1007/s10584-014-1182-4

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1182-4?utm_content=buffer9f368&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

La geoingeniería, la desesperación y los extremos políticos: falsas opciones y el negacionismo climático.

¡No! Los extremos políticos ya sea desde la izquierda es decir, del socialismo, etc., o de la derecha es decir los partidos como el T-Party de USA etc. no presentan alternativas viables a la geoingeniería.

De hecho, parecen ser lados opuestos de la misma moneda ideológica.

Al oponerse a la investigación en geoingeniería que podría arrojar luz sobre los efectos de las emisiones de aerosoles de combustibles fósiles, la extrema izquierda perpetúa la ignorancia que proporciona una cubierta a los mismos combustibles fósiles que dicen repugnar. Otra dinámica de la supuesta oposición a la geoingeniería por la extrema izquierda es lo aborrecible que son sus filosofías subyacentes, hasta el punto de casi hacer la perspectiva desagradable de la geoingeniería tolerable.

     

La extrema derecha hace más o menos lo mismo con su negacionismo del cambio climático antropogénico, incluso oponiéndose a los esfuerzos científicos que arrojarían luz sobre el asunto, ayudando a las industrias contaminantes a evitar enfrentar sus responsabilidades, y en el proceso muestran una filosofía de "egoísmo irracional" destructiva incluso a su propias poblaciones.

Otros, tal vez sintiéndose impotentes, al contemplar esta danza ejecutada a la perfección, quedan cruzados de brazos en desesperación. Esta tampoco es la respuesta, y de hecho puede complementar la inacción sintetizada por la dialéctica de la izquierda-derecha extrema.

Entonces… ¿cuál es la respuesta?

La apertura, la vulnerabilidad y la responsabilidad... ¿?

No lo sé.

Pero creo que el conocimiento, el conocimiento científico y el debate autentico, abierto; basado en hechos, sin histeria, podrían ponernos en el camino para encontrar las respuestas correctas.

Aquí los dejo con un video ficticio muy interesante (aunque esté en inglés) fundado por la Universidad de Bergen y el “The 7th Framework Programme”.

El video trae esta nota:
Exclusión de responsabilidad: El siguiente video es una obra de ficción. Se recomienda a los lectores que no debe confundirse con incidentes de la vida real.

Es parte de un sitio web por Paula Curvelo como un proyecto de su tesis doctoral.

Titulado: The Geoengineering  Debate Website.

"Lanzada en diciembre de 2012 y fue diseñada para promover un espacio de reflexión y debate sobre las implicaciones sociales y éticas de la geoingeniería".

Enlace:

https://sites.google.com/site/geoengineeringdebate/home

Sobre el autor de la página.

Paula Curvelo es estudiante de doctorado en filosofía ambiental en la Universidad de Lisboa, Portugal.

Obtuvo una licenciatura en Geografía (Universidad de Lisboa, UL), un diploma de postgrado en Sociología Urbana (Instituto Universitario de Lisboa, ISCTE-IUL), y una maestría en Sistemas de Información Geográfica y Ciencia (Universidad Nueva de Lisboa - ISEGI- NOVA).

Sus intereses de investigación incluyen los aspectos éticos, legales y sociales de la geoingeniería, la gobernanza de las tecnologías emergentes, la política del riesgo y la incertidumbre, y la filosofía de la tecnología.

Artículos de Paula sobre geoingeniería

Sueños de la ciencia de la geoingeniería - El fin del sueño cartesiano. 

Curvelo, Paula (2015) Geoengineering dreams in Science, Philosophy and Sustainability - The End of the Cartesian dream. Edited by Ângela Guimarães Pereira and Silvio Funtowicz. Routledge, pp. 114-131

Imag [en][inando] La geoingeniería - lo verosímil y lo inverosímil

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Imag[in]ing geoengineering – the plausible and the implausible, Int. J. Foresight and Innovation Policy, Vol. 9, Nos. 2/3/4, pp.162–187.         

Hacia un marco analítico para la evaluación de las dimensiones éticas de las propuestas de geoingeniería.

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Towards an Analytical Framework for Evaluating the Ethical Dimensions of Geoengineering Proposals. The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, volume 4, Issue 4, pp. 191-208.

          

Geoingeniería: reflexiones sobre los debates actuales.

Curvelo, Paula and Pereira, Ângela G. (2013) Geoengineering: reflections on current debates. The International Journal of Science in Society, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp. 1-21.

Cuestionando la visión mundial de la ciencia de geoingeniería.

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Questioning the Geoengineering Scientific Worldview. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies no. 7 (1):35-53.

Explorando la Ética de la geoingeniería a través de imágenes.

Curvelo, Paula (2012) - Exploring the Ethics of Geoengineering through Images. The International Journal of The Image, Volume 2, Issue 2, pp.177-198.

Última actualización
Julio 28, 2016

Geoengineering, despair and the political extremes: false choices and deniability.

Last updated July 2, 2015

No! Political extremes be it from the left i.e. socialism etc. or the right i.e. T parties etc. do not present viable alternatives to geoengineering.

In fact they seem to be opposite sides of the same ideological coin. 

By opposing research into geoengineering, which could shed light into the effects of fossil fuel aerosols emissions, the extreme left perpetuates the ignorance providing cover for the same fossil fuels they claim to loath.  Another dynamic of the purported opposition to geoengineering by the extreme left is how abhorrent their underlying philosophies are, to the point of almost making the unpalatable prospect of geoengineering sufferable. 

     

The extreme right does pretty much the same with its deniability of anthropogenic climate change, even opposing scientific endeavors that would shed light on the matter, helping the polluting industries avoid responsibilities, and in the process displaying a philosophical ‘irrational egoism’ destructive even to their own populations.

Others, perhaps feeling helpless, witnessing this well-rehearsed dance, are throwing up their hands in despair.  This is also not the answer, and may in fact complement the inaction synthetized by the extreme left-right dialectic.

So what is the answer?

Openness, vulnerability and accountability…?

I do not know.

But I think that knowledge, scientific knowledge, and open genuine debate based on facts, without hysterics, could put us on the path to finding the right answers.

Here I leave your with an interesting fictional video by the University of Bergen and The 7th Framework Programme. 

It is part of a website by Paula Curvelo as a PhD project titled The Geoengineering  Debate Website.

"Launched in December 2012 and was designed to promote a space for reflection and debate on the social and ethical implications of geoengineering".

Link to The Geoengineering  Debate Website

https://sites.google.com/site/geoengineeringdebate/home

About the author of the page.

Paula Curvelo is a PhD candidate in environmental philosophy at the University of Lisbon, Portugal.

She holds a bachelor’s degree in Geography (University of Lisbon, UL), a postgraduate diploma in Urban Sociology (Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, ISCTE-IUL), and a MSc degree in Geographic Information Systems and Science (New University of Lisbon - ISEGI-NOVA).

Her current research interests include the ethical, legal and social aspects of geoengineering, the governance of emerging technologies, the politics of risk and uncertainty, and the philosophy of technology.

Paula's articles on Geoengineering

Curvelo, Paula (2015)  Geoengineering dreams in Science, Philosophy and Sustainability - The End of the Cartesian dream. Edited by Ângela Guimarães Pereira and Silvio Funtowicz. Routledge, pp. 114-131

               

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Imag[in]ing geoengineering – the plausible and the implausible, Int. J. Foresight and Innovation Policy, Vol. 9, Nos. 2/3/4, pp.162–187.

               

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Towards an Analytical Framework for Evaluating the Ethical Dimensions of Geoengineering Proposals. The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, volume 4, Issue 4, pp. 191-208

               

Curvelo, Paula and Pereira, Ângela G. (2013) Geoengineering: reflections on current debates. The International Journal of Science in Society, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp. 1-21.

Curvelo, Paula (2013) Questioning the Geoengineering Scientific Worldview. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies no. 7 (1):35-53.

               

Curvelo, Paula (2012) - Exploring the Ethics of Geoengineering through Images. The International Journal of The Image, Volume 2, Issue 2, pp.177-198.


Update July 2, 2015

Interesting article:

STRANGE BEDFELLOWS: CLIMATE ENGINEERING POLITICS IN THE UNITED STATES (OPINION ARTICLE)

Nicholson and Thompson (2015) April 21, 2015 - for GEOENGINEERING OUR CLIMATE?
A Working Paper Series on the Ethics, Politics and Governance of Climate Engineering

http://geoengineeringourclimate.com/2015/04/21/strange-bedfellows-climate-engineering-politics-in-the-united-states-opinion-article/